Wollin, L., Müller, M., Korolewitz, R., Krug, N., Braun, A., ...
Background: Inhibitory effects of roflumilast on responses characteristic of allergic asthma were investigated in a fungal asthma model in BALB/c mice. Methods: Mice were sensitized with Aspergillus...
Therapeutic use of surfactant components in allergic asthma (2009)
Erpenbeck, V.J., Krug, N., Hohlfeld, J.M.
Pulmonary surfactant is a complex mixture of lipids and proteins that reduces the surface tension at the air-liquid interface. In addition to its biophysical function, some surfactant components play...
Badorrek, P., Dick, M., Schauerte, A., Hecker, H., Murdoch, R., Luettig, B., ...
Antihistamines and nasal decongestants are well-established therapeutics in allergic rhinitis. However, no data are available which directly compare the effect size of the single Substances with...
Veres, T.Z., Shevchenko, M., Krasteva, G., Spies, E., Prenzler, F., Rochlitzer, S., ...
Interactions between T cells and dendritic cells in the airway mucosa precede secondary immune responses to inhaled antigen. The purpose of this study was to identify the anatomical locations where...
Erpenbeck, V.J., Fischer, I., Wiese, K., Schaumann, F., Schmiedl, A., Nassenstein, C., ...
Background: There is increasing interest in testing surfactant preparations for asthma therapy. Previously, Curosurf was demonstrated to increase inflammation in allergic asthmatics. So far, little...
Prenzler, F., Veres, T., Holz, O., Welker, L., Mueller, M., Krug, N., ...
Role of pituitary adenylate cyclase-peptide receptor 1 in a murine model of allergic asthma (2009)
Lauenstein, H., Plappert, L., Rochlitzer, S., Pilzner, C., Welte, T., Krug, N., ...
Trimellitic anhydride-induced immune responses in murine and human precision-cut lung slices (2009)
Wang, L., Switalla, S., Förster, C., Krug, N., Hohlfeld, J., Braun, A., ...
Low cytotoxicity of solid lipid nanoparticles in in vitro and ex vivo lung models (2009)
Nassimi, M., Schleh, C., Hussein, R., Lübbers, K., Pohlmann, G., ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the potential cytotoxicity of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for human lung as a suitable drug delivery system (DDS). Therefore we used a human alveolar...
Schleh, C., Muhlfeld, C., Pulskamp, K., Schmiedl, S., Nassimi, M., Lauenstein, H.D., ...
Background Pulmonary surfactant reduces surface tension and is present at the air-liquid interface in the alveoli where inhaled nanoparticles preferentially deposit. We investigated the effect of...
Schleh, C., Muhlfeld, C., Pulskamp, K., Schmiedl, S., Nassimi, M., Lauenstein, H.D., ...
Background Pulmonary surfactant reduces surface tension and is present at the air-liquid interface in the alveoli where inhaled nanoparticles preferentially deposit. We investigated the effect of...
Cytokine production after acute exposure of precision cut lung slices to NO2 and O3 (2009)
Switalla, S., Ritter, D., Krug, N., Knebel, J., Braun, A., Sewald, K.
Respiratory toxicology and immunotoxicology in human precision cut lung slices (PCLS) (2009)
Sewald, K., Switalla, S., Wang, L., Pfennig, O., Förster, C., Krug, N., ...
Sager, A., Braeutigam, M., Badorrek, P., Krug, N.
RATIONALE: To avoid environmental variations the efficacy of a 5 weeks rush immunotherapy with Depigoid Grass Mix was investigated in patients with allergic rhinitis under standardized ECC...
Animal models for human asthma: The perspective of a clinician (2008)
The asthma animal model is still the only system that is available for modelling in vivo processes of human disease since for obvious ethical reasons these experiments are not possible in humans....
Ex vivo testing of immune responses in precision-cut lung slices (2008)
Henjakovic, M., Sewald, K., Switalla, S., Kaiser, D., Müller, M., Veres, T.Z., ...
The aim of this study was the establishment of precision-cut lung slices (PCLS) as a suitable ex vivo alternative approach to animal experiments for investigation of immunomodulatory effects. For...
Hohlfeld, J.M., Schönfeld, K., Lavae-Mokhtari, M., Schaumann, F., Müller, M., Bredenbröker, D., ...
RATIONALE: Roflumilast, an investigational, targeted phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor, reduces the in vitro and in vivo inflammatory activity of cells such as neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages, and...
Schaumann, F., Müller, M., Braun, A., Luettig, B., Peden, B., Hohlfeld, J.M., ...
RATIONALE: Epidemiologic studies have shown that exacerbation of asthma is modulated by environmental endotoxin. High levels of endotoxin are associated with asthma symptoms and the current use of...
Pletz, M.W., Maus, U., Krug, N., Welte, T., Lode, H.
Pneumococcal infections elicited by Streptococcus pneumoniae ( pneumococcus) ( pneumonia, otitis media, sinusitis, meningitis) are frequently occurring diseases that are associated with considerable...
Henjakovic, M., Martin, C., Hoymann, H.G., Sewald, K., Ressmeyer, A.R., Dassow, C., ...
A wide range of industrial chemicals can induce respiratory allergic reactions. Hence, there is an urgent need for methods identifying and characterizing the biological action of chemicals in the...
Respiratory toxicology and immunotoxicology in precision cut lung slices (PCLS) (2008)
Sewald, K., Switalla, S., Henjakovic, M., Krug, N., Braun, A.
A variety of chemicals are known to cause sensitization of the respiratory tract. PCLS offer the opportunity to gain insight into lung morphology and physiology after in vitro exposure to chemicals....
Precision cut lung slices for testing of gaseous compounds (2008)
Switalla, S., Sewald, K., Ritter, D., Henjakovic, M., Krug, N., Knebel, J., ...
Determination of immunotoxicological effects induced by exposure to inhalable chemicals displays a critical point in vitro. Insolubility of respirable chemicals and difficulties to design adequate...
Henjakovic, M., Martin, C., Hoymann, H.G., Sewald, K., Ressmeyer, A.R., Dassow, C., ...
A wide range of industrial chemicals can induce respiratory allergic reactions. Hence, there is an urgent need for methods identifying and characterizing the biological action of chemicals in the...
Kouznetsova, I., Chwieralski, C.E., Bälder, R., Hinz, M., Braun, A., Krug, N., ...
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways which is accompanied by goblet cell metaplasia and mucus hypersecretion. Trefoil factor family (TFF) peptides represent major secretory...
Neuroimmune crosstalk in asthma: Dual role of the neurotrophin receptor p75NTR (2007)
Nassenstein, C., Kammertoens, T., Veres, T.Z., Uckert, W., Spies, E., Fuchs, B., ...
BACKGROUND: Neurotrophins have been implicated in the pathogenesis of asthma because of their ability to induce airway inflammation and to promote hyperreactivity of sensory neurons, which reflects...
Fehrenbach, H., Fehrenbach, A., Dietzel, E., Tschernig, T., Krug, N., Grau, V., ...
Quantitative (immuno) transmission electron microscopy using design-based stereology was performed on specimens collected by means of systematic uniform random sampling of rat lungs, which were fixed...
Chuchalin, A.G., Tsoi, A.N., Richter, K., Krug, N., Dahl, R., Luursema, P.B., ...
The safety and tolerability of indacaterol, a novel once-daily beta(2)-agonist bronchodilator with a fast onset of action, were assessed in 156 asthma patients in a multicentre, randomized,...
Veres, T.Z., Rochlitzer, S., Shevchenkom, M., Fuchs, B., Prenzler, F., Nassenstein, C., ...
Neuroimmune interactions play a critical role in the pathogenesis of asthma. Symptoms like wheezing and cough have been attributed to neural dysregulation, whereas sensitization and the induction of...
Precision cut lung slices as tool for assessment of allergens (2007)
Switalla, S., Sewald, K., Henjakovic, M., Veres, T., Krug, N., Braun, A.
Studies on precision cut lung slices (PCLS) are part of the European Union project SENS-IT-IV. Aim of this project is the development and establishment of in vitro techniques for assessment of...
Henjakovic, M., Sewald, K., Switalla, S., Veres, T., Mätz-Rensing, K., Krug, N., ...
Technique of PCLS provides the possibility to address cellular and functional response to allergen substances under ex vivo conditions. Objective of this work is the assessment of the respiratory...
Effect of nanosized particles on pulmonary surfactant function (2007)
Schleh, C., Krug, N., Erpenbeck, V.J., Hohlfeld, J.M.
After inhalation, nanoparticles reach the deeper airways and get into contact with the pulmonary surfactant layer, whose main function is to lower surface tension in the alveoli. The aim of our study...
Function of pulmonary PACl receptor in a murine model of allergic asthma (2007)
Plappert, L., Quarcoo, D., Fuchs, B., Pilzner, C., Fischer, A., ...
Lung fibroblasts from patients with emphysema show markers of senescence in vitro (2006)
Müller, K-C, Welker, L, Paasch, K, Feindt, B, Erpenbeck, VJ, Hohlfeld, JM, ...
Abstract Background The loss of alveolar walls is a hallmark of emphysema. As fibroblasts play an important role in the maintenance of alveolar structure, a change in fibroblast phenotype could be...
Erpenbeck, V.J., Schmidt, R., Gunther, A., Krug, N., Hohlfeld, J.M.
Background: Allergic asthma is associated with airway inflammation and dysfunction of pulmonary surfactant. Because surfactant proteins (SP) account for immunomodulatory functions as well as...
Day, J.H., Horak, F., Briscoe, M.P., Canonica, G.W., Fineman, S.M., Krug, N., ...
Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a common condition with quality of life and economic implications for those affected. Numerous studies have attempted to evaluate treatments for rhinitis, seeking clinically...
Lung fibroblasts from patients with emphysema show markers of senescence in vitro (2006)
Müller, K.C., Welker, L., Paasch, K., Feindt, B., Erpenbeck, V.J., Hohlfeld, J.M., ...
Background: The loss of alveolar walls is a hallmark of emphysema. As fibroblasts play an important role in the maintenance of alveolar structure, a change in fibroblast phenotype could be involved...
Larbig, M., Burtin, B., Martin, L., Stamm, H., Luettig, B., Hohlfeld, J.M., ...
Aims To assess the antihistaminic activity of levocetirizine and fexofenadine 2 h and 24 h after drug administration using facial thermography and to compare the results with those using...
Surfactant protein D inhibits early airway response in Aspergillus fumigatus-sensitized mice (2006)
Erpenbeck, V.J., Ziegert, M., Cavalet-Blanco, D., Martin, C., Bälder, R., Glaab, T., ...
BACKGROUND: The surfactant protein SP-D has been reported to reduce bronchial hyper-responsiveness, blood eosinophilia, and T-helper type 2 cytokines in models of allergic asthma. However, little is...
Thum, T., Erpenbeck, V.J., Moeller, J., Hohlfeld, J.M., Krug, N., Borlak, J.
Background. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP) play an important role in the defense against inhaled toxicants and expression of CYP enzymes may differ amongst various lung cells and tissue...
Nassenstein, C., Dawbarn, D., Pollock, K., Allen, S.J., Erpenbeck, V.J., Spies, E., ...
Background Neurotrophins have been implicated in the pathogenesis of asthma because of their ability to promote hyperreactivity of sensory neurons and to induce airway inflammation. Hyperreactivity...
Erpenbeck, V.J., Hagenberg, A., Krentel, H., Discher, M., Braun, A., Hohlfeld, J.M., ...
BACKGROUND: GATA-3 (GATA binding protein 3) and the proto-oncogene c-maf are Th2-regulating transcription factors that control the expression of interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-5, while T-bet (T-box...
Comparison of non-invasive measures of cholinergic and allergic airway responsiveness in rats (2006)
Glaab, T., Hecker, H., Stephan, M., Baelde, R., Braun, A., Korolewitz, R., ...
AIM: Non-invasive analysis of tidal expiratory flow parameters such as Tme/TE (time needed to reach peak expiratory flow divided by total expiratory time) or midexpiratory tidal flow (EF50) has been...
Pathomechanismen der chronisch-obstruktiven Lungenerkrankung (COPD) (2006)
Glaab, T., Hohlfeld, J.M., Jörres, R.A., Krug, N., Welte, T.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is one of the most common chronic diseases worldwide, and its morbidity and mortality are still increasing. Thus, it is expected that, globally, COPD will...
Erpenbeck, V.J., Malherbe, D.C., Sommer, S., Schmiedl, A., Steinhilber, W., Ghio, A.J., ...
Recent studies have shown that surfactant components, in particular the collectins surfactant protein (SP)-A and -D, modulate the phagocytosis of various pathogens by alveolar macrophages. This...
Erpenbeck, V.J., Jörres, R.A., Discher, M., Luettig, B., Krug, N., Hohlfeld, J.M.
Nitric oxide (NO) levels are increased in the exhaled air of asthmatics. As NO levels correlate with allergic airway inflammation, NO measurement has been suggested for disease monitoring. In...
Weigt, H., Nassenstein, C., Tscherning, T., Mühlradt, P.F., Krug, N., Braun, A.
Rationale: The incidence and prevalence of allergic asthma, caused by Th2-mediated inflammation in response to environmental antigens, is increasing. Epidemiologic data suggest that a lack of...
Doganci, A., Eigenbrod, T., Krug, N., Sanctis, G.T. De, Hausding, M., Erpenbeck, V.J., ...
The cytokine IL-6 acts via a specific receptor complex that consists of the membrane-bound IL-6 receptor (mIL-6R) or the soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R) and glycoprotein 130 (gp130). In this study, we...
Krug, N., Hohlfeld, J.M., Geldmacher, H., Larbig, M., Heermann, R., Lavallee, N., ...
BACKGROUND: Loteprednol etabonate (LE) is a novel soft steroid that was designed to improve the benefit/risk ratio of topical corticosteroid therapy. This study assesses the clinical efficacy and...
Glaab, T., Ziegert, M., Bälder, R., Korolewitz, R., Braun, A., Hohlfeld, J.M., ...
BACKGROUND: This study seeks to compare the ability of repeatable invasive and noninvasive lung function methods to assess allergen-specific and cholinergic airway responsiveness (AR) in intact,...
Bälder, R., Fuchs, B., Bautsch, W., Zwirner, J., Kohl, J., Hoymann, H.G., ...
Airway hyperresponsiveness and airway inflammation are hallmarks of allergic asthma, the etiology of which is crucially linked to the presence of Th2 cytokines. A role for the complement...
Vorstudie: Mobile Kältelieferung: Abschlussbericht (2005)
Dötsch, C., Beier, C., Heinz, F., Krug, N., Gringel, M., Hannot, R., ...
Erpenbeck, V.J., Hagenberg, A., Dulkys, Y., Elsner, J., Balder, R., Krentel, H., ...
There is increasing evidence for a role of pulmonary surfactant in asthma and allergic inflammation. In murine asthma models, recent studies have demonstrated that surfactant components downregulate...
Schaumann, F., Borm, P.J.A., Herbrich, A., Knoch, J., Pitz, M., Schins, R.P.F., ...
Epidemiologic studies have shown an increased prevalence of allergic asthma in children living in a German smelter area (Hettstedt) compared with a cohort who live in a nonindustrialized area...
Influence of plasma and inflammatory proteins on the ultrastructure of exogenous surfactant (2004)
Schmiedl, A., Krug, N., Hohlfeld, J.M.
We tested the hypothesis that albumin, fibrinogen and eosinophilic cationic protein (ECP) alter not only the function but also the ultrastructural composition of natural bovine surfactant...
Eosinophil cationic protein alters pulmonary surfactant structure and function in asthma (2004)
Hohlfeld, J.M., Schmiedl, A., Erpenbeck, V.J., Venge, P., Krug, N.
BACKGROUND: Impaired surfactant function has been demonstrated in patients with asthma. Inhibitory proteins originating from plasma or inflammatory mediators are good candidates to contribute to this...
Keratinocyte growth factor transiently alters pulmonary function in rats (2004)
Hohlfeld, J.M., Hoymann, H.G., Tschernig, T., Fehrenbach, A., Krug, N., Fehrenbach, H.
Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) is a mitogen for pulmonary epithelial cells. Intratracheal administration of KGF to adult rats results in alveolar epithelial type II and bronchiolar epithelial cell...
Glaab, T., Mitzner, W., Braun, A., Ernst, H., Korolewitz, R., Hohlfeld, J.M., ...
Precise and repeatable measurements of pulmonary function in intact mice are becoming increasingly important for experimental investigations on various respiratory disorders including asthma. Here,...
Weigt, H., Muhlradt, P.F., Larbig, M., Krug, N., Braun, A.
Dendritic cells (DC) are the most potent APCs with the capacity to induce, modulate, or shut down immune function. These features make them potentially useful for treating diseases associated with...
Fehrenbach, A, Bube, C, Hohlfeld, LM, Stevens, P, Tschernig, T, Hoymann, HG, ...
Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) induces transient proliferation of alveolar type II cells (AEII) associated with surfactant alterations. To test the hypothesis that homeostasis of intracellular...
Schmiedl, A., Ochs, M., Menke, A., Fehrenbach, A., Krug, N., ...
We tested the hypothesis whether allergic airway inflammation in ovalbumin sensitized and challenged Brown Norway rats is associated with intrinsic surfactant alteration and dysfunction. The...
Local release of eosinophil peroxidase following segmental allergen provocation in asthma (2003)
Erpenbeck, V.J., Hohlfeld, J.M., Petschallies, J., Eklund, E., Peterson, C.G.B., Fabel, H., ...
Background Eosinophil peroxidase (EPO) is an eosinophilic basic protein, which leads to increased permeability and damage of bronchial epithelial cells in asthma. Objective As little is known about...
Fehrenbach, A., Bube, C., Hohlfeld, J.M., Stevens, P., Tschernig, T., Hoymann, H.G., ...
Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) induces transient proliferation of alveolar type II cells (AEII) associated with surfactant alterations. To test the hypothesis that homeostasis of intracellular...
Nassenstein, C., Braun, A., Erpenbeck, V.J., Lommatzsch, M., Schmidt, S., Krug, N., ...
Neurotrophins (nerve growth factor [NGF], brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF], neurotrophin [NT]-3, and NT-4) have been observed in elevated concentrations in allergic diseases. Neurotrophin...
Effect of anti-nerve growth factor on early and late airway responses in allergic rats (2003)
Glaab, T., Hecht, M., Korolewitz, R., Tschernig, T., Hohlfeld, J.M., ...
Background: The increased production of nerve growth factor (NGF) has been associated with allergen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and enhanced airway inflammation in experimental models of...
Erpenbeck, V.J., Hohlfeld, J.M., Volkmann, B., Hagenberg, A., Geldmacher, H., Braun, A., ...
BACKGROUND: IL-9 is a T(H)2 cell-derived cytokine that might be involved in the pathophysiology of allergic diseases. Little is known about its expression and release during the allergic response in...
Weigt, H., Mühlradt, P.F., Emmendörffer, A., Krug, N., Braun, A.
Dendritic cells (DC) modulate immune responses depending on the nature of the antigens. Receptors capable of discriminating these antigens on the basis of the pathogen-associated molecular patterns...
Surfactant proteins SP-A and SP-D as modulators of the allergic inflammation in asthma (2003)
Hohlfeld, J.M., Erpenbeck, V.J., Krug, N.
Surfactant proteins A and D (SP-A and SP-D) are members of the collectin family and bind to various motifs of microorganisms, particles and allergens. They play an important role in the first-line...
Krug, N., Loedding, H., Hohlfeld, J.M., Larbig, M., Buckendahl, A., Badorrek, P., ...
Background There is an increasing need for allergen inhalation systems to perform basic clinical research and test anti-allergic drugs under well-controlled conditions. This requires stability of...
Noninvasive measurement of midexpiratory flow indicates bronchoconstriction in allergic rats (2002)
Glaab, T., Hoymann, H.G., Hohlfeld, J.M., Korolewitz, R., Hecht, M., Alarie, Y., ...
This study was designed to evaluate the value and applicability of tidal breathing pattern analysis to assess bronchoconstriction in conscious rats. Using noninvasive, head-out body plethysmography...
Hoymann, H.G., Glaab, T., Hohlfeld, J., Korolewitz, R., Hecht, M., Krug, N.
The development of sensitive physiological methodologies that allow simple and repetitive determination of airway responsiveness in intact organisms is necessary to study the functional consequences...
Krug, N., Erpenbeck, V.J., Balke, K., Petschallies, J., Tschernig, T., Hohlfeld, J.M., ...
T cell-derived cytokines play an important role in the pathogenesis of allergic asthma, but little is known about the cytokine profile of their different subsets. The aim of the present study was to...
Krug, N., Tschernig, T., Erpenbeck, V.J., Hohlfeld, J.M., Köhl, J.
Allergic asthma Is thought to be the result of an inappropriate specific immune response against common environmental antigens. However, studies of animal asthma models have also linked the innate...
Testverfahren für inhalative Testung auf allergenes Potenzial (2001)
Es besteht ein zunehmender Bedarf an geeigneten Methoden zur prospektiven Identifizierung des allergenen Potenzials von Industriechemikalien im Atemtrakt. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Tiermodelle...
Lehmann, C., Wilkening, A., Leiber, D., Markus, A., Krug, N., Pabst, R., ...
Lymphocytes in the bronchoalveolar space are routinely obtained and examined in lung diseases such as asthma or sarcoidosis. In a pig model, labeled lymphocytes were found in regional lymph nodes...
Fulminanter Verlauf einer Leptospirose mit multiplen Organmanifestationen (2001)
Kirchner, G.I., Krug, N., Bleck, J.S., Fliser, D., Manns, M.P., Wagner, S.
We describe a case of a 39-year-old male, who initially presented with severe muscle pain, fever, shortness of breath and tachycardia. He was admitted to hospital with suspected myocarditis. The next...
Enhorning, G., Hohlfeld, J.M., Krug, N., Lema, G., Welliver, R.
Pulmonary surfactant maintains patency of narrow conducting airways. An inflammation, with a leakage of plasma proteins into the airway lumen, causes surfactant to lose some of this ability. Will a...
Heeley, E.L., Hohlfeld, J.M., Krug, N., Postle, A.D.
Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry was used to quantify phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) molecular species in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from control and mild...
Dysfunction of pulmonary surfactant in asthmatics after segmental allergen challenge (1999)
Hohlfeld, J.M., Ahlf, K., Enhorning, G., Balke, K., Erpenbeck, V.J., Petschallies, J., ...
Increased airway resistance in asthma may be partly due to poor function of pulmonary surfactant. This study investigated the inflammatory changes of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and the...
Hohlfeld, J.M., Ahlf, K., Balke, K., Erpenbeck, V.J., Petschallies, J., Hoymann, H.G., ...
Surfactant ist nicht nur für die Stabilisierung der Alviolen wichtig, sondern scheint auch eine Bedeutung in den Atemwegen zu haben. Die Atemwegsobstruktion beim Asthma könnte daher teilweise auf...
Pulmonary surfactant function is impaired in asthmatics after segmental allergen challenge (1998)
Hohlfeld, J.M., Ahlf, K., Erpenbeck, V.J., Petschallies, J., Hoymann, H.G., Krug, N., ...
Airway obstruction in asthma may in part be due to surfactant dysfunction. The purpose of this study was to investigate surfactant function and composition in brochoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids of...
Pulmonary surfactant activity is impaired in lung transplant recipients (1998)
Hohlfeld, J.M., Tiryaki, E., Hamm, H., Hoymann, H.G., Krug, N., Haverich, A., ...
Impaired graft function in the postoperaive course after lung transplantation (LTx) may in part be due to alterations in pulmonary surfactant. Animal data provide increasing evidence for surfactant...
Lung fibroblasts from patients with emphysema show markers of senescence in vitro
Müller, K-C, Welker, L, Paasch, K, Feindt, B, Erpenbeck, VJ, Hohlfeld, JM, ...
Lung fibroblasts from patients with emphysema show markers of senescence in vitro
Müller, K-C, Welker, L, Paasch, K, Feindt, B, Erpenbeck, VJ, Hohlfeld, JM, ...
Klemm, A, Tschernig, T, Krug, N, Pabst, R
Lymphocytes play an important immunoregulatory role in pulmonary immune responses. By releasing cytokines they can control the cell–cell communication of other participating cells. Although it is...